Motives for aggression in humans vary significantly and radically affect the way such actions are perceived. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration at being blocked from a goal creates anger which can lead to stress and aggression. It is worth noting that a common reaction to stress is the ‘fight or flight’ response (Myers, 2004). Frustration can be significantly attributed to the selfish nature of people. Although some may not like to admit it, selfishness is a dominant feature of social systems. Situational factors such as the individual’s desire for an incentive can be correlated with the likelihood of violence being used to attain that goal. Negative moods or perceptions, in particular hostile cognitive biases are also strongly linked to the propensity for aggression (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
Aggression is described as an inevitable factor in social environments. This is understandable for animals which live in a competitive and cutthroat world in which survival is a day to day proposition. Most humans of the western world face little of these challenges yet aggression still permeates through the social world in many forms. Social or interpersonal aggression ranges from hostile violence to more subtle forms (instrumental, passive, and active) (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
Figures from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) reported that 2370 domestic violence applications were lodged for the year 2005 in the Northern Territory alone. Marriage and relationship violence often arises through feelings of morbid jealousy or rejection (Black & Newman, 1996). A study of 551 cases in which men had killed their wives found that 45% of the murders could be attributed to a real or imminent separation. Suspicions of infidelity were also a factor with a further 15% of cases. Interpersonal rejection is without doubt a large factor in much of the social violence we see today. Conversely, the most common reason for woman to murder their husbands was the suffering of physical or verbal abuse (Leary, Twenge & Quinlivan, 2006).
A concerning study of university students in the US and Canada found that 14% of males and 5% of females would kill someone they thoroughly hated under conditions of anonymity. Another investigation conducted in the US and Canada into the affects of pornography on males uncovered some equally disturbing results. It was found that 35% of subjects indicated some likelihood of committing rape with the assurance of no retribution (Russell & Baenninger, 1996). These results indicate that perceived threat of personal liability plays a big role in determining expression of aggression.
Verbal and passive forms of aggression are widely exhibited in workplace environments. The goal of such actions is generally to harm the victim psychologically or professionally. Several workplace conditions have been positively correlated with increased aggression including pay cuts/ freezes, increase in part time staff levels, management changes, increased diversity (eg. race, religion), renovations, and budget cuts (Baron & Neuman, 1996). The high level of aggression in many workplaces is not surprising considering that common working conditions involve a wide variety of people operating at close proximity in a highly competitive, stressful environment.
The link between alcohol and aggressive behaviour is something that most of us would vouch for. After conducting extensive field research over the last few months at many bars (in the Kippax area!), the writer is of little doubt that a strong connection exists. An increase in intoxication appeared to correlate with a higher probability of spontaneous, aggressive behaviour.
Theory backs up these assertions; alcohol causes a reduction in inhibition, negative myopic affects (limited attention and tendency to focus on negatives), decreased self awareness, and disrupted cognitive function (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Research on college students from 38 worldwide sites showed that as binge drinking behaviour rose, incidence of partner violence increased accordingly (Hines & Straus, 2007). Studies into displaced aggression suggested that impaired cognitive function led intoxicated individuals to construe aggression triggering cues more negatively than their sober counterparts (Denson et al, 2007). It follows that the affects of alcohol would be exacerbated in conventional social gatherings (eg pubs, clubs, concerts, and sporting events) where large crowds are likely to drink in excess.
The recent anti drug campaign by the Department of Health and Aging highlights the affects that illicit drugs such as ‘ice’ can have on aggression. They can work like alcohol in impairing cognitive function, intensifying emotional states, and disrupting normal physiological functions. Violence can also emerge for economic reasons to finance drug use (Fagan, 1993).
In today’s society, the immense influencing power of the mass media is not to be underestimated. Most people rely on television, radio, and the internet to keep them updated as to current events. Video games and movies with themes of extreme violence are now common place in most homes (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
The large amount of violence in movies has concerned many people for its desensitizing affects on our youth. This may be the case but could violence in movies lead to violence in real life? A US experiment aimed to answer this question by exposing people with both high trait hostility, and non-aggressive characteristics to a range of violent and non-violent movies. Non-aggressive participant’s aggressive accessibility scores increased dramatically when exposed to movies containing graphic fight scenes. Surprisingly, the hostile subjects showed no such effect. This could be due to a higher threshold of cognitive priming for such behaviour (Anderson, 1997).
The phenomenon of video games has exploded over the past 20 years. Studies into the affects of first person shooter games reveal that aggression and hostility measures rise sharply upon commencing game play. The Weapons Effect was examined by substituting the standard controller for an interactive light gun. Baseline aggression, hostility, and heart rate all increased supporting the consensus that aggression increases in the presence of weapon (Barlett, Harris & Baldassaro, 2007).
The hustle and bustle of everyday life can greatly contribute to stress levels. Driving is an activity where tempers commonly boil over and result in road rage. There have been several much publicised incidents of road rage in Australia which have shocked the nation. The term road rage is used when a driver or passenger attempts to harm or intimidate another driver, passenger, or pedestrian over a traffic incident. It also includes the intentional damaging of another vehicle (Smart & Mann, 2002).
With the steady increase in vehicle numbers on our roads, congestion levels have escalated rapidly. High congestion along with time urgency has been found to contribute to frustration, irritation, and stress through goal blocking. Driving appears to be an impersonal experience for many motorists and may play a role in antisocial behaviours. Drivers with tinted windows have been found to take more risks on the road regardless of sex. This suggests that anonymity, high congestion, and time urgency have an interrelated role in predicting road rage and other aggressive driving practices (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1999).
Societal norms define the appropriateness of an action within a given cultural setting. Acts of war and genocide have resulted in violence and the destruction of human life on an unparalleled scale. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, attitudes towards war became more positive amongst American citizens for a year afterwards. Since the attacks, the US has embarked on a war on terror in Iraq where many thousands of innocent civilians have lost their lives (Carnagey & Anderson, 2007).
The infamous Rwandan genocide of 1994 resulted in the deaths of 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. BBC news reported that the genocide was triggered by the assassination of the president, Juvenal Habyarimana in 1994 after almost a centuries worth of resentment towards the Tutsis.
The Australian Eye experiment showed how ordinary people could be moved to an emotional state through exclusion based solely on eye colour.
De-individuation and the mob mentality can offer explanations for the before mentioned acts of war and genocide. At a fundamental level, lack of accountability is seen as a major risk factor because people tend to see themselves based on the feedback and consequences they receive from others (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
War, relationship/ social issues, substance abuse, media, and everyday stressors are just some of the environmental risk factors for aggression. These can lead to negative cognitive appraisals and mood patterns resulting in feelings of rejection, jealousy, resentment, stress, and frustration. We are all exposed to these sensations at some level; what matters is how we deal with them.
References
Anderson, C.A. (1997). Effects of Violent Movies and Trait Hostility on Hostile Feelings and Aggressive Thoughts. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 23, pg 161-178.
Bartlett, C.P., Harris, R.J. & Baldassaro, R. (2007). Longer You Play, the More Hostile You Feel: Examination of First Person Shooter Video Games and Aggression During Video Game Play. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 1-12.
Baron, R.A. & Neuman, J.H. (1996). Workplace Violence and Workplace Aggression: Evidence on Their Relative Frequency and Potential Causes. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 22, pg 161-173.
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Belmont, USA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Black, D. & Newman, M. (1996). Children and Domestic Violence: A Review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol 1(1), pg 79-88.
Carnagey, N.L. & Anderson, C.A. (2007). Changes in Attitudes Towards War and Violence After September 11, 2001. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 118-129.
Denson, T.F., Aviles, F.E., Pollock, V.E., Earleywine, M., Vasquez, E.A. & Miller, N. (2007). The Effects of Alcohol and the Salience of Aggressive Cues On Triggered Displaced Aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 1-9.
Fagan, J. (1993). Interactions Among Drugs, Alcohol, and Violence. Health Affairs, Winter 1993, pg 65-79.
Hennessy, D.A. & Wiesenthal, D.L. (1999). Traffic Congestion, Driver Stress, and Driver Aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 25, pg 409-423.
Hines, D.A. & Staus, M.A. (2007). Binge Drinking and Violence Against Dating Partners: The Mediating Effect of Antisocial Traits and Behaviours in a Multinational Perspective. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 441-457.
Leary, M.R., Twenge, J.L. & Quinlivan, E. (2006). Interpersonal Rejection as a Determinant of Anger and Aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol 10, no 2, 111-132.
Myers, D.G. (2004). Psychology 7th Edition. New York: Worth Publishers.
Russell, G.W. & Baenninger, R. (1996). Murder Most Foul: Predictors of an Affirmative Response to an Outrageous Question. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 22, pg 175-181.
Smart, R.G. & Mann, R.E. (2002). Deaths and Injuries From Road Rage: Cases in Canadian Newspapers. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 167(7), pg 761-762.
Internet sites:
http://www.sbs.com.au/australianeye/index2.html?id=84
http://www.pbs.org/wbgh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/
