Saturday, October 27, 2007

Blog 2: Sport - A Psychoevolutionary Perspective

Introduction

For many people all over the world sport is more than a game, it is a way of life. The thrill of competition offers an escape from the monotony of day to day life and allows us to express ourselves physically in a natural and enjoyable way. Arising from the dawn of pre-historic time, sports developed across cultures and spread from country to country defining social and cultural ideals. The immense popularity of sport makes it big business in today’s commercial world. What we shouldn’t forget is the immense health benefits of sports for people of all ages.

What is Sport?

The Macquarie Dictionary defines sports as ‘an activity pursued for exercise or pleasure, usually requiring some degree of physical skill’. For the purpose of this paper, sport is further categorized as an activity governed by a set of rules in which the capabilities of the competitors act as the primary determinant of the result.


Origins of Sport

The emergence and growth of sports can be partly linked to the evolution of humankind in general. The theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin refers to natural selection as ensuring that the fittest animals are the most likely to perpetuate their genes in future generations (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). This led to the evolution and extraordinary growth in physical and mental powers which placed humankind on top of the food chain. Man’s increased intelligence led to more active methods of acquiring foods such as hunting, often with the use of tools and weapons. An increased emphasis on physical prowess saw children trained for their future roles as hunters and warriors. This commonly took the form of organized games aimed at building skills relevant to physical performance. The quality of human life grew rapidly during this time allowing more scope for creativeness of expression through movement. Communal dance provided the first manifestation of this revolution, endearing many to the catharsis of trance (Olivova, 1984).
The practicality and desirability of possessing exceptional skills and strength meant that these attributes greatly enhanced social standing. Such abilities were frequently tested in challenging situations such as the hunting of dangerous beasts. Elite members of society frequently took part in contests which encouraged and nurtured the competitive spirit. Early sporting festivals included wrestling, racing, boxing, archery, fencing, jumping, throwing, swimming, and rowing. These rituals were still strongly linked to dance and the liberated expression of human physicality (Olivova, 1984). Competition naturally drives people to attain their goals at the expense of others. Sport provided an avenue for the release of the competitive spirit and associated nervous energy without the dangers associated with a cut-throat, natural environment (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

The development of prehistoric sport was strongly linked to the order and organization of society in general. The structure of society was mirrored in competitive sports where participants were grouped according to sex, age, occupation, social standing etc. Such events were seen as religious rituals to celebrate and honour the gods. Many mock fights and races were staged to ensure that a pre-determined victor would triumph (Olivova, 1984).
Social categorization was a powerful factor in the accessibility and participation in sports during these times but what about today? How much does our tendency to categorize people into groups affect modern sport? Could sport survive without it? These questions will be addressed later in the paper (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

Perhaps the most significant sporting event in history occurred in Olympia, Greece in 776 BC when a short foot race signaled the beginning of the ancient Olympics. The cultural significance of the Games was immense and new sports were quickly added including the pentathlon, boxing, and wrestling. The fierce combat event, the pancration, meaning ‘all forms of power’ pitted contestants in brutal fighting battles with almost no rules at all. The pancration was subject to immense interest and popularity during the late antiquity period, perhaps satisfying an in-built inquisitiveness as to the nature of competition and the will to succeed. All games were strictly individual contests with high importance placed on the result. Winning symbolized excellence and beauty in the physical form while losing led to disgrace (Young & Wamsley, 2005).

A quote from Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher summed up the value ancient societies placed on sporting achievement. He describes a young man's ultimate physical beauty: "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength...This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful."

Sport and Culture

Sport has the undoubted ability to galvanize people in a completely unique way. It transcends cultural and social barriers in a celebration of skill, identity, and freedom. There is no doubt that sport is imbedded in the popular culture of most developed nations. Culture refers to an information based system involving shared ideas and praxis (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). The story of sport is one that corresponds with the cultural development of many nations.
British colonialism of India, and the West Indies acted to spread popular European sports such as cricket and football. In a way, sport acted as a bridge or avenue allowing a degree of cultural assimilation between vastly different nations. In 1857, a resistant Indian population acted in mutiny against the newly established British rule. England’s superior armed forces ensured that the resistance was quickly eliminated with native Indians resigned to stereotypes of inferiority at the hands of their rulers. At this point, Indian society was one with vast discrepancies in cultural ideology between natives and colonists (Majumdar, 2006). The late 19th century saw Indian nationalism gather momentum, not through acts of violence but rather through a new, collective emphasis on physical culture. In response to British portrayal of Bengali males as effete, an increased emphasis on physical education arose in many Indian schools. ‘Masculine’ British sports such as cricket, football, and tennis were encouraged, not as an act of mimicry but more as an avenue to permeate self respect, manliness, and self worth amongst Indian men. This is not to say that Indian’s did not thoroughly enjoy victories over the colonists! Britain’s superiority in European sports in many ways symbolized the success of the imperial agenda. When native Indian’s challenged the British on the cricket field, it coincided with the demise of colonial rule and the continued growth of India’s national identity (Majumdar, 2006).


The 20th century has seen sports grow from the days of being an exclusivity upper class pastime. The best example of this is soccer which has grown into a truly international phenomenon. Argentina, a relatively poor nation put the whole world on notice with a stirring victory in the FIFA world cup of 1986. It can be said that sport does not just represent a battle between classes, but also a territorial dual between suburbs, cities, states, and nations. This represents the degree of globalization of humankind in general since the individual contests of pre-historic/ ancient times (Poli, 2007).

The competitiveness of modern day sport results in fierce rivalries not just between teams but also fans. Groups bonded by their membership or allegiance to a sporting team can become involved in conflict. Several psychological theories aim to explain violence on the sporting field. Research has suggested that violence in sport amongst college students is caused by provocation, encouragement by coaches, peer pressure, wanting to win (competitiveness), revenge, and retaliation. It is especially likely if it constitutes the difference between winning and losing. Another influence is the ‘macho’ image of males in society. Social learning theory describes behavior (such as violence in sport) in three ways. Firstly, social learning results from the consequences of our actions e.g. Rewards for good behavior and punishment for bad. Violence in sport may be partly a product of its general acceptance (and sometimes encouragement) from coaches, team mates, fans, media, and society. Cognitive associations between circumstances and expected behavioral responses also contribute. Consider the case of Des Headland and Adam Selwood in the Australian Football League. Fremantle’s Headland escaped a five match suspension for a confrontation with West Coast’s Selwood after claiming sexually explicit taunts were made about his six year old daughter. Surprisingly, Selwood also escaped any punishment thus exposing a major loophole in the tribunal system. Role modeling is another factor that has led to aggression in sports. Research suggests that much of the learnt behavior in young athletes is imitative in nature including that of overly aggressive tactics aimed at unsettling the opposition (Lance & Ross, 2000).

Professionalism in Sport

A major difference between present day sport and that of the past is the amount of money involved. Many describe it as the transformation of an activity pursued for its own sake to one undertaken for extrinsic purposes. In saying this, high value had been placed on top level sports throughout history where the incentives varied but always related to social standing in some form. The thing that has changed in modern day sport is what it means to be an athlete. Sport has become institutionalized and is now more like work than play for the elite. The main power brokers in the modern game are the managers and audience; the players are merely pawns in a commercial enterprise. To highlight this, sport sits comfortably in the top 20 industry Gross National Product List of the US ahead of the automobile, petroleum, and airline industries. The exploding industry of sports science focuses the latest and most advanced research on improving performance. Athletes behind the eight ball are left behind in a field where every second counts. Sports stars of today require representation and management advice in most areas of their lives. Many have multi million dollars contracts to endorse big name brands and companies (Frey & Eitzen, 1991).

The effect of media on sport has been highlighted in the National Rugby League competition. In 1997 Rupert Murdoch attempted to buy out the game resulting in a breakaway Super League competition being established. Many believe that the game changed for ever when pay packets rose by outrageous amounts due to media related deals. The sport which stood for local pride and passion became a global circus of ultra fit professionals playing for extrinsic reasons. Luckily for fans, the game survived but not before being shaken to the very core. There is a big fear that increased importance of monetary awards may act to devalue the intrinsic motivations for playing sport. An exaggerated emphasis on winning has seen the use of performance enhancing drugs become endemic. One must hope that proper education will continue to ensure that our youth play purely for the love of sport and not for extrinsic purposes (Blake, 1995).


Conclusion

Sport has changed forever as a result of increased media exposure. This forces athletes into the lime light, many of whom are perhaps not ready for such responsibility. It is important for sporting heroes of the day to recognize their influence and act as role models for the younger generations. It is the author’s opinion that they are extremely well paid for their jobs and owe it to society, to give something in return (even if that means restraining from going out and acting like a goose every Saturday night).
Finally, sport will be better off if it can maintain its territorial and parochial nature because there is no better spectacle than a fierce local derby or international grudge match.

References

Baumeister, R.F. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Belmont, USA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Blake, A. (1995). Sport and the Global Media. New Statesman & Society. Vol. 8, Issue 355, pg 47-48.

Frey, J.H. & Eitzen, D.S. (1991). Sport and Society. Annual Review of Sociology. 17, pg 503-522.

Lance, L.M. & Ross, C.E. (2000). Views of Violence in American Sports: A Study of College Students. College Student Journal. Vol. 34, Issue 2, pg 191-199.

Majumdar, B. (2006). Cricket in Colonial Bengal (1880-1947): A Lost History of Nationalism. The International Journal of the History of Sport. Vol. 23, No. 6, pg 960-990.

Olivova, V. (1984). Sports and Games in the Ancient World. London: Orbis.

Poli, R. (2007). The Denationalization of Sport: De-ethnicization of the Nation and Identity Deterritorialization. Sport in Society. 10: 4, pg 646-661.

Young, K. & Wamsley, K. (2005). Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games








Saturday, October 20, 2007

Psychoevolution of Sport - Some early thoughts

I'm finding this topic to be harder than I thought.

These are my early ramblings.

Any ideas most welcome.

Introduction

Origins of Sport
Define sports. The emergence and growth of sports can be partly linked to the evolution of humankind in general. The theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin refers to natural selection as ensuring that the fittest animals are the most likely to perpetuate their genes in future generations (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). This led to the evolution and extraordinary growth in physical and mental powers which placed humankind on top of the food chain. Man’s increased intelligence led to more active methods of acquiring foods such as hunting, often with the use of tools and weapons. An increased emphasis on physical prowess saw children trained for their future roles as hunters and warriors. This commonly took the form of organized games aimed at building skills relevant to physical performance. The quality of human life grew rapidly during this time allowing more scope for creativeness of expression through movement. Communal dance provided the first manifestation of this revolution, endearing many to the catharsis of trance (Olivova, 1984).
The practicality and desirability of possessing exceptional skills and strength meant that possession of these attributes greatly enhanced social standing. Such abilities were frequently tested in challenging situations such as the hunting of dangerous beasts. Elite members of society frequently took part in contests which encouraged and nurtured the competitive spirit, the fundamental driving force of sport (Olivova, 1984).
To be continued…

Ancient Sports
Olympia
Aristotle describes a young man's ultimate physical beauty: "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength...This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful." (Aristotle, Rhetoric 1361b)
Idealism – Search for perfection in the human form.

Teams
Cooperation
Groups
Social Facilitation - Evaluation apprehension, dominant response.
Altruistic punishment
Leadership - Power.

Colonialism
Did sport help bring cultures together?
Role of sport - Cricket in India, West Indies (British colonialism)
History of American sport
Australian sport

Nationalism/ parochialism
Identity
Collectivism
Self esteem
Violence/ fanaticism

Professionalism
Motivation
Incentives
Media
Sponsorship
Corporatization
Gambling

Conclusion

Wednesday, October 10, 2007

Reply: Pro Sport (Relevant to my blog 2 topic)

I'm posting this as a separate blog because the links to my comments aren't working on my page.

Mike,

I am in agreeance 100% with your opinion.

The introduction of ridiculously high amounts of money at top level sport was an inevitable co-factor of increased access to sport through the media. This opens up the avenue for athletes to use their profile by selling themselves through endorsements and other media related activities. Cash flow through television, merchandising, and ticket sales (let alone club-pokie machine profits) put clubs in a position to offer vast sums of money to players who will enhance profile and performance. Look at David Beckham; you can't say that the LA Galaxy have made a poor investment for the club and the entire league when national interest is raised to an immearsurable degree. Sport is a business and the bottom line is money (achieved through winning) which means that officials may need to tweak the rules to stop teams adopting negative tactics ie. rugby union. Cricket has been at the forefront by introducing limited overs and twenty20.

It is worth noting that many athletes use their profile for the betterment of the world through charity activities.

Popularity of sport plus increased exposure have combined to give elite athletes their huge pay packets. Sport is like a religion and can act to galvanise entire nations like when the socceroos made the top 16 at the last FIFA world cup.

What I'm trying to say is that the beauty of sport also acts as its downfall because of that dirty word: money. As long as every man and his dog spend most Saturday nights glued to the tv watching their beloved team go around drinking a beer (the brand of which is conveniently painted all over the ground, getting an inkling for some KFC when the adds come on, buying merchandise and sports gear for the kids which is endorsed by the big footy star) sports stars will demand vastly inproportional sums of money compared to the rest of us and good on them.

In saying that I completely agree with you that sport has changed what it is about. I loved the days when representing a club meant working your way up through the juniors. This was a time when loyalty ruled and money wasn't an issue in sport. The game eg. rugby league was far more accessible and the players were just regular blokes who had to work just as hard as everyone else for a living. That realness has left the game forever because players are celebrities now and in affect separated from the rest of society due this status. Look at the Melbourne Storm, it really bugs me that a team from Melbourne has won the NRL when I think only one player is actually from Melbourne! Their feeder club is Brisbane Norths for crying out loud. Clubs should receive substantial subsidies to enable them to sign local players. Or better yet, local players should not even count towards the salary cap in the NRL (their salary could be regulated in some other way).

They definitely deserve their rewards and I'd much rather see the players reep the benefits than the club officials and media broadcasters hoarding all the money. In saying that there's plenty to go around!

Ps. I'm sick of all the Raiders players leaving so they can go and live in the big city and become stars! The nature of sport put teams like the Raiders in big trouble even though they have one of the best junior development areas in the country, how sad.

Keith

Sunday, September 2, 2007

Blog 1: What are the environmental (situational) explanations for aggression?

At the dawn of the 21st century, the world generally places less emphasis on the use of hostile aggression. It is generally classed as antisocial and barbaric because as humans we have the intelligence to mediate conflicts without resorting to violence (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Why is it then that war and genocide continue to result in the deaths of so many innocent people over the world? It is clear that aggressiveness makes up a fundamental part of the human psyche but what environmental triggers serve to produce a world of continued hostility?

Motives for aggression in humans vary significantly and radically affect the way such actions are perceived. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration at being blocked from a goal creates anger which can lead to stress and aggression. It is worth noting that a common reaction to stress is the ‘fight or flight’ response (Myers, 2004). Frustration can be significantly attributed to the selfish nature of people. Although some may not like to admit it, selfishness is a dominant feature of social systems. Situational factors such as the individual’s desire for an incentive can be correlated with the likelihood of violence being used to attain that goal. Negative moods or perceptions, in particular hostile cognitive biases are also strongly linked to the propensity for aggression (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

Aggression is described as an inevitable factor in social environments. This is understandable for animals which live in a competitive and cutthroat world in which survival is a day to day proposition. Most humans of the western world face little of these challenges yet aggression still permeates through the social world in many forms. Social or interpersonal aggression ranges from hostile violence to more subtle forms (instrumental, passive, and active) (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

Figures from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) reported that 2370 domestic violence applications were lodged for the year 2005 in the Northern Territory alone. Marriage and relationship violence often arises through feelings of morbid jealousy or rejection (Black & Newman, 1996). A study of 551 cases in which men had killed their wives found that 45% of the murders could be attributed to a real or imminent separation. Suspicions of infidelity were also a factor with a further 15% of cases. Interpersonal rejection is without doubt a large factor in much of the social violence we see today. Conversely, the most common reason for woman to murder their husbands was the suffering of physical or verbal abuse (Leary, Twenge & Quinlivan, 2006).

A concerning study of university students in the US and Canada found that 14% of males and 5% of females would kill someone they thoroughly hated under conditions of anonymity. Another investigation conducted in the US and Canada into the affects of pornography on males uncovered some equally disturbing results. It was found that 35% of subjects indicated some likelihood of committing rape with the assurance of no retribution (Russell & Baenninger, 1996). These results indicate that perceived threat of personal liability plays a big role in determining expression of aggression.

Verbal and passive forms of aggression are widely exhibited in workplace environments. The goal of such actions is generally to harm the victim psychologically or professionally. Several workplace conditions have been positively correlated with increased aggression including pay cuts/ freezes, increase in part time staff levels, management changes, increased diversity (eg. race, religion), renovations, and budget cuts (Baron & Neuman, 1996). The high level of aggression in many workplaces is not surprising considering that common working conditions involve a wide variety of people operating at close proximity in a highly competitive, stressful environment.

The link between alcohol and aggressive behaviour is something that most of us would vouch for. After conducting extensive field research over the last few months at many bars (in the Kippax area!), the writer is of little doubt that a strong connection exists. An increase in intoxication appeared to correlate with a higher probability of spontaneous, aggressive behaviour.
Theory backs up these assertions; alcohol causes a reduction in inhibition, negative myopic affects (limited attention and tendency to focus on negatives), decreased self awareness, and disrupted cognitive function (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Research on college students from 38 worldwide sites showed that as binge drinking behaviour rose, incidence of partner violence increased accordingly (Hines & Straus, 2007). Studies into displaced aggression suggested that impaired cognitive function led intoxicated individuals to construe aggression triggering cues more negatively than their sober counterparts (Denson et al, 2007). It follows that the affects of alcohol would be exacerbated in conventional social gatherings (eg pubs, clubs, concerts, and sporting events) where large crowds are likely to drink in excess.

The recent anti drug campaign by the Department of Health and Aging highlights the affects that illicit drugs such as ‘ice’ can have on aggression. They can work like alcohol in impairing cognitive function, intensifying emotional states, and disrupting normal physiological functions. Violence can also emerge for economic reasons to finance drug use (Fagan, 1993).

In today’s society, the immense influencing power of the mass media is not to be underestimated. Most people rely on television, radio, and the internet to keep them updated as to current events. Video games and movies with themes of extreme violence are now common place in most homes (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
The large amount of violence in movies has concerned many people for its desensitizing affects on our youth. This may be the case but could violence in movies lead to violence in real life? A US experiment aimed to answer this question by exposing people with both high trait hostility, and non-aggressive characteristics to a range of violent and non-violent movies. Non-aggressive participant’s aggressive accessibility scores increased dramatically when exposed to movies containing graphic fight scenes. Surprisingly, the hostile subjects showed no such effect. This could be due to a higher threshold of cognitive priming for such behaviour (Anderson, 1997).
The phenomenon of video games has exploded over the past 20 years. Studies into the affects of first person shooter games reveal that aggression and hostility measures rise sharply upon commencing game play. The Weapons Effect was examined by substituting the standard controller for an interactive light gun. Baseline aggression, hostility, and heart rate all increased supporting the consensus that aggression increases in the presence of weapon (Barlett, Harris & Baldassaro, 2007).

The hustle and bustle of everyday life can greatly contribute to stress levels. Driving is an activity where tempers commonly boil over and result in road rage. There have been several much publicised incidents of road rage in Australia which have shocked the nation. The term road rage is used when a driver or passenger attempts to harm or intimidate another driver, passenger, or pedestrian over a traffic incident. It also includes the intentional damaging of another vehicle (Smart & Mann, 2002).
With the steady increase in vehicle numbers on our roads, congestion levels have escalated rapidly. High congestion along with time urgency has been found to contribute to frustration, irritation, and stress through goal blocking. Driving appears to be an impersonal experience for many motorists and may play a role in antisocial behaviours. Drivers with tinted windows have been found to take more risks on the road regardless of sex. This suggests that anonymity, high congestion, and time urgency have an interrelated role in predicting road rage and other aggressive driving practices (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1999).

Societal norms define the appropriateness of an action within a given cultural setting. Acts of war and genocide have resulted in violence and the destruction of human life on an unparalleled scale. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, attitudes towards war became more positive amongst American citizens for a year afterwards. Since the attacks, the US has embarked on a war on terror in Iraq where many thousands of innocent civilians have lost their lives (Carnagey & Anderson, 2007).
The infamous Rwandan genocide of 1994 resulted in the deaths of 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. BBC news reported that the genocide was triggered by the assassination of the president, Juvenal Habyarimana in 1994 after almost a centuries worth of resentment towards the Tutsis.
The Australian Eye experiment showed how ordinary people could be moved to an emotional state through exclusion based solely on eye colour.

De-individuation and the mob mentality can offer explanations for the before mentioned acts of war and genocide. At a fundamental level, lack of accountability is seen as a major risk factor because people tend to see themselves based on the feedback and consequences they receive from others (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
War, relationship/ social issues, substance abuse, media, and everyday stressors are just some of the environmental risk factors for aggression. These can lead to negative cognitive appraisals and mood patterns resulting in feelings of rejection, jealousy, resentment, stress, and frustration. We are all exposed to these sensations at some level; what matters is how we deal with them.


References

Anderson, C.A. (1997). Effects of Violent Movies and Trait Hostility on Hostile Feelings and Aggressive Thoughts. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 23, pg 161-178.

Bartlett, C.P., Harris, R.J. & Baldassaro, R. (2007). Longer You Play, the More Hostile You Feel: Examination of First Person Shooter Video Games and Aggression During Video Game Play. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 1-12.

Baron, R.A. & Neuman, J.H. (1996). Workplace Violence and Workplace Aggression: Evidence on Their Relative Frequency and Potential Causes. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 22, pg 161-173.

Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Belmont, USA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Black, D. & Newman, M. (1996). Children and Domestic Violence: A Review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol 1(1), pg 79-88.

Carnagey, N.L. & Anderson, C.A. (2007). Changes in Attitudes Towards War and Violence After September 11, 2001. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 118-129.

Denson, T.F., Aviles, F.E., Pollock, V.E., Earleywine, M., Vasquez, E.A. & Miller, N. (2007). The Effects of Alcohol and the Salience of Aggressive Cues On Triggered Displaced Aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 1-9.

Fagan, J. (1993). Interactions Among Drugs, Alcohol, and Violence. Health Affairs, Winter 1993, pg 65-79.

Hennessy, D.A. & Wiesenthal, D.L. (1999). Traffic Congestion, Driver Stress, and Driver Aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 25, pg 409-423.

Hines, D.A. & Staus, M.A. (2007). Binge Drinking and Violence Against Dating Partners: The Mediating Effect of Antisocial Traits and Behaviours in a Multinational Perspective. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 33, pg 441-457.

Leary, M.R., Twenge, J.L. & Quinlivan, E. (2006). Interpersonal Rejection as a Determinant of Anger and Aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol 10, no 2, 111-132.

Myers, D.G. (2004). Psychology 7th Edition. New York: Worth Publishers.

Russell, G.W. & Baenninger, R. (1996). Murder Most Foul: Predictors of an Affirmative Response to an Outrageous Question. Aggressive Behaviour, vol 22, pg 175-181.

Smart, R.G. & Mann, R.E. (2002). Deaths and Injuries From Road Rage: Cases in Canadian Newspapers. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 167(7), pg 761-762.

Internet sites:

http://www.sbs.com.au/australianeye/index2.html?id=84

http://www.pbs.org/wbgh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/



Wednesday, August 22, 2007

Test posting: Aggression very rough draft

The behavioural phenomenon of aggression is an aspect of many social systems. It involves intentional behaviour to harm others of the same species who wish to avoid being harmed (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Studies of animals have indicated that aggression can play a fundamental role in the establishment of functional and productive ecosystems. The aggressive response is one of the most basic instincts which serve as a vital protective and defensive mechanism. Studies of white sea-bream show how their behaviour changes when subjected to different feeding conditions. When food is distributed in small amounts or clusters, aggressive behaviour increases thus acting to space out the population and prevent over crowding. Hierarchic systems are commonly settled through aggressive rituals where the largest animal with superior fighting ability accesses the prime resources (Castro & Santiago, 1998). This adds weight to the evolutionary perspective of survival of the fittest.

At the dawn of the 21st century, the western world places less emphasis on the use of hostile aggression. It is generally classed as antisocial and barbaric because as humans we have the intelligence to mediate conflicts without resorting to violence. Why is it then that war and genocide continue to result in the deaths of so many innocent people over the world? It is clear that aggressiveness makes up a fundamental part of the human psyche but what environmental triggers serve to produce a world of continued hostility? To answer these questions, one must delve into the nature of the impulse and the psychological factors which activate aggressive actions (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

Motives for aggression in humans vary significantly and radically affect the way such actions are perceived.